DALIT LITERATURE
AFTER INDEPENDENCE
If the forth
world emerges in the world map then its literature would be the Dalit
literature which is not structured or entertaining like the ones conforming to
Bhraminical ideological theories. Contemporary mainstream literature might not
find it suitable but this literature was the realistic reflection of those
oppressed classes. What is dalit literature (composition on the basis of caste)
is always a question of question which still needs answer as it is very hard to
define the exact time and place of its beginning. We only can guess its history
from the written source based on “Manusmirity”
or Ambedkar’s essay “Who were Shudras?” but one is religious document while
other is historical so not comes in the tag with literature because many
writers/critics never include religious document in literature. First of all
let us go through the beginning of modern Dalit Literature. The jhalsa and oral
literature are its important part but still in the waiting under the
literature.
One group of
literary critics and researchers defines its times to the Buddhist Age while
second to the saint poet Chokhamela (14th C) whereas next to Mahatama Phule
(1828-90) and there are some who prefers to S.M. Mate (1886-1957). Here one can
add that term dalit was first used by Ambedkar in 1928 in his journal
“Bahishkrit Bharat” (Outcaste India), thus we can say Buddha and Phule were making
the pavement for dalit literature which is turned into a layer of concrete by
Ambedkar through his periodicals “Mooknayak”, “Bahishkrut Bharat”, “Janata” and
“Prabudha Bharat.” Beside it, the main aim of the dalit literature is described
by Bandhumadev in article “Prabudha Bharat” (Feb 15, 1958) is that “Just as the
Russian writers helped the revolution by spreading Lenin’s revolutionary ideas
through their works. Our writers should spread Dr. Amdedkar’s philosophy to the
villages.” (Dangle 242)
Modern Dalit
Literature is detected in 1969 with the article “A Discussion: Literature of
Dalit: Consciousness, Direction and Inspiration” by M.N. Wankhade wherein he
mentions the Buddhist writers such as Keshav Meshram, Shankarrao Karat,
Sukharam Hivrale and the Dalit writer P.M. Shinde. Again the emergence of “Dalit
Literature” or “Dalit Sahitya” is seen in “The Times Weekly Supplement” of
November 25, 1973 with the term Dalit Panthers (founded by Namdeo Dhasal and
Raja Dhale). It comes against the physical reaction to the violence against
untouchable or Buddhists. It is low caste Marxist movement of literature begins
with Annabhau Sathe and Narayan Surve. It can be well understood by the words Bagul
who famously writes “Dalit Sahitya is not a literature of vengeance. Dalit
Sahitya is not a literature which spreads hatred. Dalit Sahitya first promotes
man’s greatness and man’s freedom and for that reason it is an historic
necessity.... Anguish, waiting, pronouncements of sorrow alone do not define Dalit
Literature. We want literature heroically full of life for the creation of a
(new) society.” Sathe’s speech spelt out the purpose of Dalit literature but
not successful to bring any motion in literary world. In fact, there were no
Dalit writes of calibre at that time, except few ones.
Most famous
Buddhist poet is Namdeo Dhasal writes in a mixture of Buddhist and Marxist. The
history of Dalit Literature and its theme are the part of Mahar Movement and chiefly
connected with hero Ambedkar. Modern Dalit poet K.K. Damle, pseudonym
Keshavsut, writes in the concluding part of the poem that published in 1974
“The First Question of the Untouchable Boy” about the status of how “low and
high they are” and wonders when her mother told him all this about their position
in social order and he questions to himself “How would she know/ that highness
in this world is built/ on sin and glory on/ the degradation of others.” During
his time other famous writers can be mentioned with the name M.G. Ranade, G.G.
Agarkar, Gopal Baba Walangkar, Pandit Khodiram, and the social reformer Jotibha
Phule but the literature of the time mainly centres on Keshavsut, and, after
him, there was a long gap for the literature of untouchables until the rise of B.R.
Ambedkar, the only highly educated untouchable.
When we peep in
the history of 1940’s we find the great novel on life on Bhaka, the hero of “The Untouchable” by Mulk Raj Anand and
another novel “Scavenger’s Sons” of
Sivashankar Pillai. More social reformer and less literary figure, S.M. Mate’s
two important works “Asprishyavicar”
(Thoughts on Untoucbales, 1922) and “Asprishatancaprashna”
(The Question of those who are Untoucbales) are enough to earned him the title
“Mahar Mate.” The next literature in list is 1935’s book of Sane Guruji’s “Syamchi Ai” (Shayam’s Mother) and in the
next book “Devala Saru Priya” (All
are Dear to God) comes to conclusion that “to God all forms are holy. God is in
the body of the Brahman, the fish and even the Mahar.”
In 1950’s and in
1960’s Dalit writing saw the emergence of literature with the publication of
Sathe’s “Fakira”, and “Savala Mang”; and Shankarrao Karat’s “Manuskichi Huk” (The Cry of Humanity)
and “Bara Balutedar” (The Twelve
Balutedar). When we read the literature of all these writers we find a revolt
against the old notions based on “Manusamiriti”
or are the part of old brahim society. It was at its peak during the time of
Ambedkar but after it its decline begins and witnesses an anticlimax in 1970s.
Since there is steady or no progress in movement but literature was produced in
a large number by various literature. Now, like Ambedkar, more dalit person
goes abroad for higher studies and returns to India with a great zeal and
begins to improve the situation of Dalit through their writings.
Not only in
literature, we also noticed the emergence of political greatness and the
political leader like Mayawati from Uttar Pardesh, Arjun Munda from
Chattisgarh, fro, Bihar we have Lalu Parsad Yadav. They not provide the great
space for the dalit but also the greater opportunities for them to make the
success for their education which enables them to be the important part of
society.
Shashi Bhushan
Upadhayay pointed out that “Dalit literature is not a literary movement in
ordinary sense of the term. It is, like Black literature, a product of an
identity as well as constitutive of that identity... dalit literature,
therefore, is not the literature written by anybody on the dalits, but only by
those who are by birth dalits. Anyone else, not born as a dalit, even though
writing on the socially downtrodden with sympathy or empathy, can-not be
considered as a dalit writer nor will his/her literature be taken as dalit
litera-ture.” ('Representing the Underdogs: Dalits in the Literature of
Premchand') This is perhaps a restricted understanding. Raj Kumar pointed out
that non-dalit writers are selective in their portrayal of the dalit situation.
For instance, upper caste Hindu writers have not taken into account several
important issues. "Even as late as the early part of the twentieth
century, the untouchables had no access to public facilities such as wells,
rivers, roads, schools, markets. The most perverted practice of untouchability
was that which, at one time, compelled the untouchables to tie an earthen pot
around their neck so that their sputum’s should not fall to the earth and
pollute others. Another practice was the compulsion to tie a broom behind them
so that their footprints would be erased before others set their eyes on
them" (Dalit Literature: A
Perspective from Below).
Now let us move
to the some controversies regarding dalit literature. In this sense, the
greatest work on the life of untouchable is Anand’s “Untouchable” (1935). It is criticised because it was not written by
a Dalit writer as Anand belongs to Kshatriya caste and was considered a shame
for the dalit community. But if we criticised a work only because it was
written by a non-dalit writer then nothing could become good literature. They
can criticised Shakespeare for writing about kings when he was not a king, and
Milton about God or Angel when he was not the same. They can criticised Arvind
Ghosh for writing about slaves simply because he was not a slave. If criticised
literature or writings on these false notion then the originality of its loss
its real value. The literature of this type can never be enjoyed by the
critics. The real aim these writers is not to bring the lowness of dalit
society but they are presenting the situation as they saw or reported to them
by the others; and in doing so, they brings a close and real imagery and this
is obviously true in the case with “Untouchable” and “Coolie” by the same
writer.
The act of
non-dalit is not an attack on the dalit literature but they perform to change
the scenario by their writings which are not accepted by them. In fact, “non-dalit
writers viewed dalit literature in a particular way but the dalit elite saw it
with their own angle.” (Dangle 250) That is why the controversy arise. The
class-war has always been between the oppressors and the oppressed differed
markedly in different historical periods and this is also the case with the
dalit and the dalit literature. All and everywhere we saw the conflict in between
the ideas of Brahmin and dalit persons. All the conflicted are taken its counterpart
from the writings of Marx and Engles.
Poems, short
stories, novels and autobiographies written by Dalit writers provided useful
insights on the question of Dalit identity. Now the subaltern communities found
a new name by coming together with the perspective ‘Dalit is dignified’ thereby
rejecting the sub-human status imposed on them by the Hindu social order. Dalit
literature is experience – based. This ‘anubhava’ (experience) takes precedence
over ‘anumana’ (speculation). Thus to Dalit writers, history is not illusionary
or unreal as Hindu metaphysical theory may make one to believe. That is why
authenticity and liveliness have become hallmarks of Dalit literature.
The
well-received Dalit autobiography Karukku by Bama portrays, in a Dalit
discourse and language, the prevalence of untouchability in the Catholic Church
and its nunneries. The book is an unabashed expression of Dalit language. But
as every body seems to be enjoying this language, we may suspect some weakness
in this. The sorrow, tragedy and disappointment of Dalit experience have become
objects of excessive pity and sym pathy. It does not seem to have evoked any
sense of guilt or anger. Self-pity is of no use for the protest literatue of
Dalits. Daya Pawar wrote his autobiography — Baluta — (a reward for the Mahar
community in Maharashtra in return to the various services offered to the
highcastes) when his poetry was widely appreciated. It was published in 1978.
P.E. Sonkamble's Athwaniche Pakshi (Birds of Memories) came in the following
year. Then came out a spate of Dalit autobiographies — Mukkam Post Devache
Gothne (At Post Devache Gothne) by Madhav Kondvilkar, Taral Antral (The Sky and
Heights of the Soul) by Shankarrao Kharat, Gawaki (A Village Profession) by
Rustam Achalkhamb, Fanjar (A Thorny Bough) by Nanasaheb Zodge, Abhran (stripes
of cloths worn around the waist by Potraj - a devotee who tortures himself in
the name of God) by Parth Polke, Mitleli Kawada (Closed Doors) by Mukta
Sarvagod, Majya Jalmachi Chittarkatha (The Illustrated Story of My Life) by
Shantabai Kamble, Jina Amcha (Our Life) by Baby Kamble, Antasphot (Inner
Explosion) by Kumud Pawade, Udhwasta Vyayacha Mala (I want to be Ruined) by
Mallika Dhasal.
Besides these
autobiographies narrating the experiences of caste based social structure,
there are others narrating the tribal experiences. Living out of the well-bound
limits of the society, the tribal com munities were never a part of the Indian
ethos though they followed the same religious practices prevalent within the
Hindu fold. They were always looked upon as aliens by the society. This feeling
of being alienated is effectively illustrated by Laxman Mane in his
autobiography entitled — Upara (An Outsider), by Laxman Gaikwad in Uchalya (A
Lifter) and by Kishor Shantabai Kale in Kolhatyacha Por (Son of a Kolhati),
Sham Kumar Limbale's Akkarmashi (Being Illegitimately Born) narrates a unique
story of being illegitimately born. The narrator is a son of a Dalit woman who
is lured into physical intimacy by a rich landlord and was deserted by him and
consequently by the society. Limbale delineates what it is to be a son of
deserted woman, how painful and agonizing is the process of growing up in a
society in which sexual exploitation and casteism are the prevalent trends.
Dalit is poetry
is an effort to use symbolic images based on the experience and they break many
old poetic conventions of literature. In the images they neither follow Eliot
nor Pound or Freud. Instead they choose historical references and myths from a
dalit point of view. The Primary motive of Dalit literature is the liberation
of dalits. Dalit struggle against casteist tradition has a long history. For
example, in Kannada, it goes back to the first Vachana poet of the 11th
century, Chennaiah, the cobbler. The 12th century Dalit saint Kalavve
challenged the upper castes in the following words:
“Those
who eat goats, foul and tiny fish:
Such, they call caste people.
Those who eat the Sacred Cow
That showers frothing milk for Shiva:
Such, they call out-castes”.
Such, they call caste people.
Those who eat the Sacred Cow
That showers frothing milk for Shiva:
Such, they call out-castes”.
Kondiram's
description of the Mahars' lifestyle thereby functioned as a caustic indictment
of the Manusmriti's Brahmanic Hindu laws. Such laws, he says, not only made the
Mahars wear a black thread around their necks as a sign of their non-human
status, but excluded them from all social contact. Kondiram writes in his poem:
Live
in a hut which you must build outside the village!
That is what the Brahmans write in their books.
That is what the Brahmans write in their books.
As non-humans,
Kondiram points out, the Mahars could have no wealth or valuable possessions.
He writes:
Ati-Shudras
cannot tend cows and buffaloes,
But how on earth can they ever obtain anything like a horse or
an elephant!
Their wealth is dogs and asses, rats and mice.
They can keep the clothes from corpses,
But can't have any new clothes.
They must eat out of broken clay pots,
And dress up finely by wearing iron ornaments!
But how on earth can they ever obtain anything like a horse or
an elephant!
Their wealth is dogs and asses, rats and mice.
They can keep the clothes from corpses,
But can't have any new clothes.
They must eat out of broken clay pots,
And dress up finely by wearing iron ornaments!
Devibharati's
short story 'Bali' is a noteworthy piece of Dalit writing. Through its
narration, discourse, transgressions, counter aesthetics, and signification, it
has become a brilliant piece of Dalit literature.
In 1867,
Alexander Grant provided the first English translation of thirty-eight of
Tukaram's abhangs, which in choice and exegesis suggest a strong line of
juxtapositioning and comparison of bhakti Hinduism with Non-conformist
Protestant theology. Firstly, in his translations and commentary, Grant laid
particular emphasis on Tukaram's devotional faith and his individual sense of
inner religious experience. He cites Tukaram's individual devotional experience
in the following abhang:
Sing the song
with earnestness, making pure the heart,
If you would attain God, then this is the easy 'way'.
Make your heart lowly, touch the feet of the saints.
If you would attain God, then this is the easy 'way'.
Make your heart lowly, touch the feet of the saints.
Grant interprets
this devotionalism as the essence of Tukaram's religious belief. In Grant's
opinion this experience conformed closely to the Non-conformist Protestant
insistence upon the value of individual inner experience as the ultimate
religious authority.
Grant was one of the first, but by no means the only Non-conformist
Protestant in Maharashtra to be struck by this alleged similarity of bhakti
devotionalism to Non-conformist Protestantism. What Grant describes with regard
to the Shudra bhakta-sant Tukaram, Rev. Alexander Robertson (Wesleyan Church)
also found characteristic of the Mahar untouchable bhakta-sant Chokhamela.
Robertson translates Janabai's abhang on Chokhamela in a similar fashion to
Grant:
Famous as a saint was Chokha, God was much enamoured
of him.
Whosoever showeth great devotion, him doth God assist in danger.
Chokhamela gained such power, that e'en God became his debtor.
Lay firm hold, saith Nama's Jani, on the lotus feet of Vittal.
Whosoever showeth great devotion, him doth God assist in danger.
Chokhamela gained such power, that e'en God became his debtor.
Lay firm hold, saith Nama's Jani, on the lotus feet of Vittal.
Secondly in their translations and commentaries, both Grant and Robertson
argue that, like Non-conformist Protestantism, Tukaram's and Chokhamela's
bhakti rejected all ritual and the intermediary role of the Brahman priesthood.
It is true that
one major theme of dalit poetry is rural oppression, but not only is the writer
urban middle class but the attitude is also middle class. This was reflected in
the lackadaisical manner in which the discussion on language was conducted.
That dalit literature, after more than a decade of existence, is not very
serious in coming to grips even with the primary contradiction between writing
for the oppressed and yet using the sanskritised language of the educated is
indeed surprising. If dalit writers had come to grips with this problem they
would have discovered—as revolutionary poets in Andhra have discovered—that
there is a whole sea of new problems awaiting them.
Dalit writers
sparkled their ink in short stories, novels and drama but its richness lies in
poetry, autobiographies and biographies with the crying theme of “new past, new
future.” Dalit literature find its root in black literature and this is quite
true the Pawar’s poem “Harlem.” Baburao Bagul short story “When I had Concealed
my Caste” creates a stir in Dalit Literary world. Narayan Surve’s poetry is a
mixture of Marxism which makes him Angry Young Man of sixties whose work “Fakta”
is published in “Little Magazine.” His collection of two anthologies “Aisa Ga
Mi Bramha” and “Majhe Vidyapeeth” gives a new direction to the dalit
literature. A new kind of point of view is seen in “Golpitha” by Namdeo
Dhasal—the portrayal of explosive expression of the acute pain of dalits.
“Doha” of Shrinivas Kulkarni is the another side of the same coin. The
autobiographies highlights caste, class and gender bias during the oppression
of Dalits and majority of these writings brought a small change in the outlook
in the society, though many of the practices still continue in the society
today.
Vizhi Pa.
Idhayavendan's collection of short stories, Nan danar Theru revolves around
Dalits. As these stories are modelled on genres of both mass culture and
intellectual culture, its Dalit aesthetics is somewhat diluted. Moreover, they
also make it suited for left cultural politics. Yet it is still possible that
he may ultimately produce some good Dalit literature.
Valangkar (who
was the principal author of the Vinanti Patra), likePhule, saw varna and jati
divisions as a historical (and not divinelyordained structure) which had been
developed by the Aryan Brahmans to extend their control over Hindu society.
Valangkar argued that varna distinctions originated as a result of the conflict
between the indigenous Dravidian inhabitants of India and India's Aryan
invaders. Drawing on Phule's Gulamagiri (I873), Valangkar envisaged an Aryan
Brahman accession to socio-religious power in southern and western India as a
result of successive waves of Aryan conquest of the indigenous Dravidian
inhabitants. Within this process of Aryan invasion and conquest, Phule had
argued that the creation of the Mahar jati and untouchability was a punishment
for those Dravidian inhabitants who had most persistently resisted Aryan
authority.
The cry of
dalits are “We shall write the way we feel; who are you to dictate to us?”
While reviewing the past the Dalit find that there is no literature for them
so, like Blacks, they revolt and produced their own literature through which
they present their problems. The magazines like “Asmitadarsha” and “Pratishthan,”
“Satyakatha”, “Marathwada,” “Amhi,” “Magova” and newspaper of Ambedkar and
conferences like “Buddha Sahitya Sabha” helped them in doing this. The first
collection of dalit poems by dalits entitled “Akar” was published by “Buddha
Sahitya Sabha” in 1967. In their search
for alternatives, Dalit writers have rediscovered the low caste saint poets of
the Bhakti movement. Even they found relevance in Buddhism. Referring to folk
lore, they make an assertion that Dalits were members of an ancient primitive
society and were uprooted by the alien Brahminical civilization. These writers
make a fervent plea for a complete overhaul of society. As Arjun Dangle, the
Marathi Dalit writer put it, “Even the Sun needs to be changed.” Dalit
literature should represent the original, particularly the historical and the
struggling, Dalit. It should not be a simple, superficial and empirical
collection of the Dalit life. It should probe the deep, psychological
underworld of the oppressed. It should avoid supplying any kind of moral
compensation for the real struggle. Dalit literature should avoid the
unpleasant distortion of 'Dalit Salvation' through the leadership provided by
the patronage offered by the oppressors. The poems of 'Inquilab', the short
stories of Vizhi. Paa. Idayavendan, Sivakami, Abhimani, Bama and the novels of
Daniel, Poomani, Imayam, Arivazhagan, Marku, Bama are recognized as Dalit
literary works.
Though the first
collection of poems failed but the collection of short stories “Death is
Getting Cheaper” by Baburao Bagul come like a revolution. In the past,
white-collar writers shows the slum life with their point of view but Bagul
totally changed it as Arjun Dangle remarks in the Maharastra Times (Oct 15,
1972) “it is difficult to write about Baburao’s stories. Their shrewd rusticity
and their jolting experiences take his stories much beyond the normal limits of
the short story. These stories can be set in the framework of traditional
values of art. The rationale for separate standard of criticism for Dalit
literature can be found there.” (Dangle 248)
Beings with
Marathi language, dalit literature is growing in every regional and
international language in different parts of India now-a-days. It is fact that
it emerge with Ambedkar in the form of songs, ballads through tamasha and
jhalsa but in writing it was very small. Dalit literature is successful in
regional or national level but on international grounds it fails when compared
with Black literature. Many reasons are pointed out for its backwardness such
as (1) The critics thinks that it is a blend of Marxism and Ambedkarism which
demands both class and caste. (2) Dalit literature is always confusion between
Buddhist and Dalit Literature as some prefers Buddhism rather than Dalit. (3) There
is always tension whether it is literature of social or political or both.
Beside it, Dalit literature is rejected by the high class critics like W.L.
Kulkarni, D.K. Bedekaar, R.G. Jadhav, And Sharatchandra Muktibodh. Not only
this, it was also discarded by their native readers and critics as they wanted
to forget their past. Arjun Dangle named them “Dalit Brahmins” as for them
dalit literature is dirty. These “Dalit Brahmins” criticised the Bagul’s novel
“Paushya” because of the pitiable
conditions of the dalit.
In 1993,
"Dalit Sahitya (literature) transform into "Ambedkari Sahitya"
after the name of its modern age hero and inspiration Ambedkar. In a society,
the Dalits were demographically sidelined and their writings did not border on
romanticising the issues, but resisted it strongly, he observed. The writings
may not be imaginative, but were able to make the world sit and think.
University Rector K. Viyyanna Rao presented a memento to the participants in
the plenary session. Their main point very correctly is that the mainstream
literatures in our country relate to a world of experience which is quite small
and narrow. The Lokayan seminar (Gujrat 1981) made that point once again. But, as Economic and
Public Weekly published, the Dalit writers are blissfully unaware of a bigger
world of which even their areas of experience are a part. This seminar was yet
another testimony to this lack of awareness or indifference. One- wishes that
the Dalit writers extend their analysis and vision to areas beyond the ones
they have been handling. If they did they might come up with almost revolutionary
answers. They certainly have the potential. Arun Kamnble says: "aim of the
movement is humanism; liberty, equality and fraternity; absence of
exploitation". Arjun Dangle is even more inclusive: "all the
revolutions that have happened anywhere - Ambedkar, Phule, Alarx, Mao,
Lenin..."
Dalit literature
questioned the mainstream literary theories and upper caste ideologies and
explored the neglected aspects of life. Dalit literature is experience – based.
This ‘anubhava’ (experience) takes precedence over ‘anumana’ (speculation).
Thus to Dalit writers, history is not illusionary or unreal as Hindu
metaphysical theory may make one to believe. That is why authenticity and
liveliness have become hallmarks of Dalit literature. Unfortunately dalit have
seen too many expansive 'total revolutionaries' to be happy with such
formulations, especially when Dangle adds: "class antagonism of the
Marxist model does not exist in India". But perhaps what was more striking
was their indifference towards the whole question.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Dangle Arjun.
ed. “Poisoned Bread: Translations from
Modern Marathi Dalit Literature.” Bombay: Orient Longman. Print
Rao, Anupama. “The
Caste Question: Dalit and the Politics of Modern India.” University of California: 2011. Print
D, G. P.. “
Dalit Literature”. Economic and Political Weekly, 17. 3 (1982): 61-62. Print
Savyasaachi.
“Dalit Studies: Exploring Criteria for a New Discipline.” Economic and
Political Weekly, 39.17 (2004): 1658-1660. Print
Sir I want to research on dalit literature, could you please call me within 3 days my no is 9926933445
ReplyDeleteI want to copy n paste it on my desktop to read
ReplyDeleteI am a writer of research oriented articles. I have written one artilce on WDalit women Autobiography. i am to write another article on Dalit men Autobiography. as i would like to quote what Shashi bushan has said. based on the definition What democracy is, i have written Dalit literature is for the the Dalits, of the dalits and by the dalits. when i search for other articles on Laxman Mane, i came across your blog. Shashi Bushan has also said what i have written modifying the definition Democracy is for the people, of the people and by the people. as i have to doucment my saying , shall your blog and the name of Shashi bushan Upadhyaya?
ReplyDeleteLiterature is of experience and from experience. As such, Dalit Literature is of Dalit experience and from Dalit chaos and predicaments. There is much to explore the Dalit psyche and much more to be written. Dalits have to write about their experiences through autobiographies. I tried my best to record my experience in my novel, Dalit Street', and many Dramas. The links for my Dalit Creative works are below:
ReplyDeleteBooks:
Novel 'The Vulnerable Dalit street' http://www.bonfring.org/bookpub/pub_books.php?year=2015&page=4
The Trilogy of One Act Plays
http://wizcraftpublication.com/catalogue.html
Plays:
1. The Native Lion and the Deer
file:///C:/Users/NETUSER/Downloads/394-777-1-SM.pdf
2. The Vain Sacrifice of Dalit Martyrs
http://www.arseam.com/sites/default/files/published-papers/abstracts/Paper-3%20%20page%2020-37%20%20%20Abstract%20%20%20Dr.%20Razole%20Prabhakar%20%20%20%20Dec%20-2014%20issue.pdf
3. Humanity: The Sole Divinity
http://jespnet.com/journals/Vol_1_No_1_June_2014/14.pdf
4. The Extremes
https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijsell/v2-i11/1.pdf
5. He-She (Hijra)
http://ajms.co.in/sites/ajms2015/index.php/ajms/article/view/1936/pdf_113
6. Follies Fall Apart
http://gifre.org/library/upload/volume/1-7-FOLLIES-vol-3-6-gjiss.pdf
7. The Wife of God
https://www.arcjournals.org/pdfs/ijsell/v2-i3/9.pdf
Thank you for this article, it is such an important work of documenting the history of Dalit Literature.
ReplyDeleteso helpful....
ReplyDelete